BASIC QUALITY CONCEPTS
1.0 THE NATURE OF VARIATION
While standing on a street corner observing the passing traffic,
two cars of the same make and model stop at a traffic light. Both cars are the
same color, have Goodyear tires and have a luggage rack on the trunk. At first
glance, the cars seem identical. Upon closer observation, differences are
detected. Both cars have Goodyear tires, but are the tires the same size? Are
the radios the same? Is the upholstery the same? There are many characteristics
for comparison.
The closer an item is examined, the more differences are found. No
two objects are exactly alike. All things differ by some degree. Some variation
may be obvious, but other variation may require precise measuring equipment to
detect.
All manufactured parts exhibit variation. It is the concept of
variation that forms the basis of probability, statistics and quality control.
Consider a part that is produced by a punch press. As raw material is fed into
the press, the machine punches out the parts. Eventually the press will produce
a large number of similar parts. A visual check of the diameters may reveal no
differences among the parts. If the diameter is measured with a scale, some
differences will be found. If the measurements are made with a micrometer, a
greater number of differences will be detected. Each level of comparison or
method of measurement reveals a greater amount of variation.
As the measurements increase in precision, the differences among
the parts become greater and greater until ultimately none of the parts would
be the same. As the level of comparison becomes more precise, the concept that
no two objects are exactly alike is realized.
2.0 QUALITY
The word quality is often used indiscriminately for many different
meanings. Quality can be defined as “fitness for use,” “customer satisfaction,”
“doing things right the first time,” or “zero defects.” These definitions are
acceptable because quality can refer to degrees of excellence. Webster’s
dictionary defines quality as “an inherent characteristic, property or
attribute.” QReview will define quality as a characteristic of a product or
process that can be measured. Quality control is the science of keeping these
characteristics or qualities within certain bounds.
In a manufacturing or service environment, there are two major
categories of quality: quality of design and quality of conformance. A poorly designed product will not
function properly regardless of how well it meets its specifications.
Conversely, a product that does not conform to excellent design specifications
will not properly perform its intended function.
2.1 Design Quality
Design quality refers to the level of
characteristics that the designers specify for a product. High-grade materials,
tight tolerances, special features and high performance are characteristics
associated with the term, high quality product.
An example of design quality may be
shown by the comparison between an expensive automobile and an economy model. A
Ferrari and a Ford Escort are compared. Both cars will perform the same basic
function of getting from point A to point B. Each will generally conform to its
design specification. The owners in both cases may be satisfied with the way
their cars are put together. However, that is where the similarity ends. The
Escort owner does not expect his car to go 150 mph, have leather seats and have
twelve coats of paint, or be highly responsive. The Ferrari owner expects these
characteristics or qualities.
The cost of making a product will
usually rise as more characteristics are specified to increase product
performance, improve comfort, improve ease of use and make the product look
better. High-grade materials usually command a premium price. However, in many
cases, increased competition creates an atmosphere of finding ways to make
better and less expensive designs. This is true for products such as computers,
VCRs and televisions.
The reliability of a product must be
considered in the design stage. Reliability is the probability that a product
will perform its intended function, without failure, for a specified length of
time. Reliability is dependent on the basic design, the quality of materials
and the quality of components that go into the final product. To achieve the
required reliability, designers may need to specify higher priced components.
This may translate to higher prices but also higher value for the consumer.
Many products command a premium price
because they provide value to the consumer. Others may be expensive because of
their role as status symbols. Expensive
products do not always contribute to better product performance or customer
satisfaction. This is particularly true in the software industry. Many low
priced applications work just as well and sometimes better than expensive ones.
The designer may receive input from
various sources when determining the level of design quality. In addition to
the designer’s own ideas, input concerning product performance, materials to be
used and various product characteristics may be received from management,
marketing, sales, other engineering organizations or directly from customers.
The final design specification may or may not be what the designer had in mind.
Although some quality engineers and
other quality professionals get involved with product design, their time and
effort is usually spent in designing and maintaining systems to measure and
control process and product characteristics after the design is complete. A
challenge to quality engineers is to implement the statistical techniques used
in manufacturing during the design stage. The goals would be to enhance product
design by eliminating problems early in the design process to ensure the ease
of manufacturing.
2.2 Conformance Quality
After the level of design quality has
been determined, the product characteristics are formed into drawings and
specifications. The manufacturing engineers will use the drawings and
specifications to develop manufacturing specifications and design the
operations necessary to produce the product. This includes the floor layout,
machinery, test sets, tools and other equipment. A plan for the number of
employees required may also be included. The quality engineer works with the
manufacturing engineer to make the quality system and maintenance of
conformance quality an integral part of the manufacturing process. Any product
checks, process checks or quality improvement activities should be an inherent
part of the process. Conformance quality may be defined as the degree of
adherence of the product characteristics to the design drawings and
specifications. The objective of a quality program is to have a system that
will measure and control the degree of product and process conformance in the
most economical way.
The quality engineer will determine what
product or process characteristics are to be checked. The quality engineer will
also determine the type of data to be collected, the corrective actions
required, and the statistical tools or other techniques to be used.
3.0 QUALITY SYSTEMS
A quality system is a mechanism that coordinates and maintains the activities needed to ensure that the characteristics of products, processes or services are within certain bounds. A quality system involves every part of an organization that directly or indirectly affects these activities. Typically, the quality system is documented in a quality manual and in the associated documents that specify procedures and standards.
3.1 Basic Elements in a Quality System
There are three basic elements in a quality system:
Quality Management, Quality Control, and Quality Assurance.
·
Quality Management: Quality management is the means of implementing and
carrying out quality policy. They perform goal
planning and manage quality control and quality assurance activities. Quality
management is responsible for seeing that all quality goals and objectives are
implemented and that corrective actions have been achieved. They periodically
review the quality system to ensure effectiveness and to identify and review
any deficiencies.
·
Quality Control: The term quality control
describes a variety of activities. It encompasses all techniques and activities
of an organization that continuously monitor and improve the conformance of
products, processes or services to specifications. Quality control may also
include the review of processes and specifications and make recommendations for
their improvement. Quality control aims to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory
performance by identifying and helping to eliminate or at least narrow the
sources of variation. Quality control has the same meaning as variation control
of product characteristics.
The objective of a quality control program is to define a system in which
products meet design requirements and checks and feedback for corrective
actions and process improvements. Quality control activities should also
include the selecting and rating of suppliers to ensure that purchased products
meet quality requirements.
·
Quality Assurance: The term quality assurance
describes all the planned and systematic actions necessary to assure that a
product or service will satisfy the specified requirements. Usually this takes
the form of an independent final inspection. The distinction between quality
control and quality assurance is stated in an ANSI/ASQ standard: “Quality
control has to do with making quality what it should be, and quality assurance
has to do with making sure quality is what it should be.” The quality assurance
function should represent the customer and be independent of the quality
control function, which is an integral part of the manufacturing operation.
3.2
The Quality Audit
A quality audit is an independent assessment comparing the various management and quality activities to a standard. The word independent implies that the person performing the audit is not associated with the activity being audited. There are two general types of audits: management and quality system audits and product specific audits.
The types of quality audits:
· Management and Quality System Audit - Manufacturing
· Management and Quality System Audit - Software
· Management and Quality System Audit - Service
· Product Specific Audit - Manufacturing
· Product Specific Audit - Software
· Activity Specific Audit - Service
Companies use first-party audits to evaluate their own performance. Second-party audits are conducted by a customer on a supplier. Audits conducted by completely separate companies, with no personal stake in the audited company, are labeled third- party audits. Auditors in a third-party audit are usually registrars that audit to international standards such as the ISO 9000 series.
A customer will usually combine a
quality system audit with a product-specific audit. Third-party audits are
usually reviews of the management and quality system and not product specific.
Quality audits assess that:
·
Quality plans and procedures are in place
·
Documents are controlled to avoid misuse
·
Standards and regulations are being followed
·
The data system provides accurate and adequate information
·
Problems are addressed and corrective action is taken
·
Products conform to requirements
Audits should be conducted on a scheduled basis. There should be no surprises to the organization being audited. This policy enables all those involved to organize their workloads and assign personnel to assist in the audit. The audit should not disrupt any processes or work being done.
3.3 Quality Systems Diagram
4.0 QUALITY SYSTEMS STANDARDS
4.1 The
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) was founded in 1946 to develop a common set of manufacturing, trade,
and communications standards. It is based in
Quality systems or quality programs in
one form or another have existed since the beginning of factories. Companies
developed and implemented a quality system that worked for them. Although there
was an abundance of literature on quality system elements, quality tools and
statistical techniques, a standard did not exist until 1987. In that year, an
ISO technical committee developed and published the ISO 9000 series of
standards that define the minimum requirements for an adequate quality system. The ISO 9000 series
standards were revised in 1994 and 2000.
The ISO 9000:2000 series
and the joint ANSI/ISO/ASQ
Q9000-2000 series of standards are used as a tool to establish whether
companies are using a quality system that will ensure their ability to meet
product quality and service performance requirements. The ISO 9000 series and
the ANSI/ISO/ASQ Q9000-2000 series of
standards are technically identical.
The ISO 9000 series standards are intended to assure
that a company has at least a minimum adequate management and quality system in
place. These generic standards provide quality management guidance as well as
quality assurance guidance and requirements that apply to all types and sizes
of companies. An ISO registration does not necessarily mean that a company
produces products that always meet their design intent. The ISO audit is an
assessment of the management and quality system and does not address product
issues. There are no standards for product quality in the ISO 9000 series
standards.
Over eighty countries have adopted the ISO 9000
series as a national standard. All standards developed by ISO are voluntary.
There are no legal requirements to adopt them. However countries and companies
often adopt and attach legal requirements to ISO standards. Each member country
has an accreditation board that adopts the ISO 9000 series standards and
certifies independent registrars. The Registrar Accreditation Board (ANSI/RAB)
is the USA-recognized accreditation board.
Registrars are third party companies that evaluate
quality systems for conformity to ISO 9000 standards. The registrars conduct audits
and issue certificates to organizations that conform to the standards. The
audit will involve most departments and functions in an organization. The focus
of the audits is on documentation, implementation and effectiveness.
Organizations are certified by the registrars and not by ISO or an
accreditation board. ISO-conforming companies are allowed to display the
registrar’s mark on advertising and stationary as evidence of registration.
Unfortunately, not all registrars are created equal so there may be significant
differences in the way audits are conducted and findings assessed.
The ANSI/RAB sets standards and specifies training
for registrars but does not maintain a
4.2
The ISO 9000:2000 (ANSI/ISO/ASQ
Q9000-2000)
Series Standards
The ISO 9000
Standards Year 2000 Revision consists of:
- ISO 9000: Quality management systems -
Fundamentals and vocabulary
- ISO 9001: Quality management systems -
Requirements
- ISO 9004: Quality management systems -
Guidelines for performance improvements
ISO 9001 registration provides confidence to
customers and potential customers that an adequate quality system is in place
and that quality and service requirements will likely be met. An ISO auditor will gather
preliminary information on the company to be audited and then determine if the
company is actually doing what it has documented.
The
ISO 9000 Standards have been aligned with ISO 14001:1996 the environmental
management standard.
4.3
ISO 9001:2000
A
brief outline of the management system requirements per ISO 9001:2000 are
Quality Management System
(Paragraph 4)
The
organization shall establish, document, implement and maintain a quality
management system and continually improve its effectiveness. The quality
management system documentation shall include documented statements of a
quality policy and quality objectives, a quality manual and records.
Documents
required by the quality management system shall be controlled. Records are a
special type of document and shall be established and maintained to provide
evidence of conformity to requirements and of the effective operation of the
quality management system. Records shall remain legible, readily identifiable
and retrievable.
Management responsibility
(Paragraph 5)
Top
management shall provide evidence of its commitment to the development and
implementation of the quality management system and continually improving its
effectiveness by communicating to the organization the importance of meeting
customer as well as statutory and regulatory requirements. Management shall
ensure that customer requirements are determined and are met with the aim of enhancing
customer satisfaction. Management shall ensure that the quality policy is
appropriate to the purpose of the organization, is reviewed for continuing
suitability and is communicated and understood within the organization. Quality
objectives, including those needed to meet product requirements are to be
established for relevant functions and levels within the organization.
Top
management shall appoint a member of management who, irrespective of other responsibilities,
shall have responsibility and authority for the quality system
Resource management
(Paragraph 6)
The
organization shall determine and provide the resources needed to implement and
maintain the quality management system and continually improve its
effectiveness, and to enhance customer satisfaction by meeting customer
requirements. The necessary competence for personnel performing work affecting
product quality shall be determined and training provided or other actions taken
to satisfy these needs.
Appropriate
records of education, training, skills and experience shall be maintained.
The
infrastructure needed to achieve conformity to product requirements shall be
determined and established. Infrastructure includes, buildings, workspace, associated
utilities, process equipment (both hardware and software), and supporting
services.
Product realization
(Paragraph 7)
The
organization shall plan and develop the processes needed for product
realization. In planning product realization, quality objectives and
requirements for the product shall be determined. Where product requirements
are changed, the organization shall ensure that relevant documents are amended
and that relevant personnel are made aware of the changed requirements. The
design and development of product shall be controlled. The organization shall
determine the design and development stages, the review, verification and
validation that are appropriate to each stage, and the responsibilities and authorities
involved. Systematic reviews of design and development shall be performed per
planned arrangements.
The
organization shall ensure that purchased product conforms to specified purchasing
requirements. Suppliers shall be evaluated and selected based on their ability
to supply product in accordance with the organization's requirements. Purchasing
information shall describe the product to be purchased.
Where
appropriate, product shall be identified by suitable means throughout product
realization. Product status shall be identified with respect to monitoring and
measurement requirements. Where traceability is a requirement, the organization
shall control and record the unique identification of the product. Care of
customer property shall be exercised while it is under the organization's
control.
Where
necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment shall be calibrated or
verified at specified intervals, or prior to use, against measurement standards
traceable to international or national measurement standards. Where no such standards
exist, the basis used for calibration or verification shall be recorded;
Measurement, analysis and
improvement (Paragraph 8)
The
organization shall plan and implement the monitoring, measurement, analysis and
improvement processes needed to demonstrate conformity of the product, to
ensure conformity of the quality management system, and to continually improve
the effectiveness of the quality management system. The organization shall
conduct internal audits at planned intervals to determine whether the quality management
system conforms to the planned arrangements.
The
management responsible for the area being audited shall ensure that actions are
taken without undue delay to eliminate detected nonconformities and their
causes. Follow-up activities shall include the verification of the actions
taken and the reporting of verification results. Suitable methods for
monitoring and, where applicable, measurement of the quality management system
processes shall be applied. These methods shall demonstrate the ability of the
processes to achieve planned results. When planned results are not achieved,
corrective action shall be taken to ensure conformity of the product. Product
characteristics shall be monitored and measured to verify that product requirements
have been met. Product which does not conform to product requirements is to be
identified and controlled to prevent its unintended use or delivery. The
controls and related responsibilities and authorities for dealing with
nonconforming product shall be defined in a documented procedure.
Appropriate
data shall be determined and collected to demonstrate the suitability and
effectiveness of the quality management system and to evaluate where continual
improvement of the quality management system can be made. The organization
shall continually improve the effectiveness of the quality management system
through the use of the quality policy, quality objectives, audit results,
analysis of data, corrective and preventive actions and management review.
Action
shall be taken to eliminate the cause of nonconformities in order to prevent
recurrence. Corrective actions shall be appropriate for the nonconformities
encountered.
5.0
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
5.1 Statistical Quality Control and Statistical Process Control
Statistical quality control (SQC) and
statistical process control (SPC) are scientific methods for analyzing data and
keeping the process within certain boundaries. Many statistical tools, such as
control charts, Pareto analysis, design of experiments, regression analysis and
acceptance sampling may be used. SQC methods can be applied to anything that is
possible to express in the form of numbers. SQC is concerned with product
characteristics and SPC is concerned with process characteristics.
The word statistical means having to do
with numbers, or more specifically, with drawing conclusions from numbers. The
word quality means much more than the goodness or defectiveness of the product.
It refers to the qualities or characteristics of the product or process being
studied. The word control means to keep something within boundaries or to
regulate it so that its outcome may be predicted with some degree of accuracy.
In a manufacturing operation, conformance quality characteristics are to be
kept within certain bounds. Taken together, the words Statistical Quality
Control or Statistical Process Control mean:
Statistical -
With the help of numbers or data,
Quality or
Process - The characteristics of a product or process are studied,
Control - To
make them behave the way they are intended to behave.
The most important element in
statistical quality control is the feedback loop between the quality control
function and the make operation. In statistical process control, the feedback
loop is between the process control function and the device that regulates the
process or the person responsible for adjustments. Continuous feedback and the
appropriate corrective action drive statistical quality control and statistical
process control to achieve the desired results. Both SQC and SPC seem to work
best when the checks and feedback loops are automated and human intervention is
minimized.
5.2 The Law of Large Numbers
The law of large numbers
is a mathematical concept that says: Individual occurrences are unpredictable
and group occurrences are predictable. The number of marriages, births and
deaths in the
5.3 Central Limit Theorem
The central limit
theorem states that a group of averages of sample size 4, 5 or 6 units always
tends to follow the pattern of a normal distribution. If the population
distribution leans to one side or the other, the distribution of sample
averages from that population will tend to be symmetrical and have normal
variation. The central limit theorem is what legitimizes the use of variables
control charts regardless of the actual population distribution. The normal
distribution and control charts will be reviewed in a subsequent chapter.
5.4 Data
Webster's dictionary defines the word data as a plural noun portraying factual information such as measurements or statistics used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation. Data are categorized in two ways: attribute data and variables data. Data classified as good/bad, pass/fail, go/no-go, etc., are called attribute or discrete data. When actual measurements are taken and recorded, the data are called variables or continuous data. In many cases (but not all cases), variables data will be distributed in a symmetrical bell-shaped curve called the normal curve. The known areas under the curve allow for inferences to be made about the process with relatively small amounts of information. By using the known areas under the curve, the fraction of measurements that will lie between, above, or below certain values can be predicted with a high degree of accuracy.
5.5 Distributions
Because of variation between measurements
of individual parts, data when plotted will form a distribution. A distribution
model describes how the data are dispersed. A plot of the distribution will
show a center value and the range of measurements. The variation between data
values will usually be quite small and follow a natural pattern. Large
variation indicates that the pattern is unnatural. This may be attributed to
external or assignable causes. When a pattern is unnatural, the cause should be
investigated and eliminated. Statistical techniques such as control charts are
used to identify the unnatural patterns. A plot of the actual data showing the
data values versus the number of occurrences is called a histogram. A
mathematical estimate of the shape of the histogram is called a frequency distribution. Distributions are formed
because everything in the world that can be measured exhibits variation. If the
measuring instrument is very precise, it will be discovered that like the
snowflake, no two measurements are exactly the same.
5.6 Precision and Accuracy
In addition to the objects that are measured, the measuring instrument itself has variability. Two different instruments may measure the same parts and yield different results. In many cases, measuring parts a second time with the same instruments will give a different result. A low value of the instrument’s standard deviation indicates greater precision. When an instrument is accurate but not precise, the measurements are distributed about the true value within the acceptable range. When an instrument is precise but not accurate, the measurements are clustered close together but at a distance from the true value. When an instrument is both accurate and precise, the data are clustered close together around the true value.
5.7
Statistical Techniques
Many statistical techniques are used in quality control and inspection. Listed below are the most widely used statistical methods.
|
·
Histograms |
·
Acceptance Sampling |
|
·
Statistical Inference |
·
Process Capability Analysis |
|
·
Hypothesis Testing |
·
Reliability |
|
·
Decision Errors |
·
Regression & Correlation |
|
·
Statistical Process Control |
·
Design of Experiments |
|
·
Control Charts |
·
Pareto Analysis |
Basic probability is the foundation of statistical methods. Its importance cannot be understated. To really understand statistical methods, an understanding of probability concepts is essential.
It must be stressed that the application of statistical techniques alone will not fix any problems or improve product or process quality. Statistical techniques are tools to identify problems and provide data for decisions. For problems to be fixed or improvements to be made, some action must be taken. The action may be automated or conducted by humans, but nevertheless, action must be taken. Automated actions work best in manufacturing situations.
The chapters that follow cover the essential elements of the various statistical techniques. QReview presents the material from an engineering point of view and assumes that the student has some previous background in statistical concepts and methodology. Mathematical derivations and in-depth explanations are not included. These are tasks for textbooks on mathematical statistics. The subject of metrology and calibration is covered in chapter twelve.
6.0
HUMAN FACTORS
Human
factors focuses on human beings and how they interact with equipment, products,
environments, other people and day to day activities. The goal of human factors
in a company is to match the workplace and management approach to the
capabilities, needs and limitations of people. The part of human factors
addressing human and machine interactions is called ergonomics.
The
first thrust of human factors was to study the workplace and design the
environment and machinery to better accommodate the person doing the job. This
goal has been expanded to include the way management manages and the
involvement of employees in the decision making process.
In
the 1930s, a study was conducted at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Works in
In
an authoritarian company, the boss gives orders and the employees carry them
out. In these situations, employees often complain about job satisfaction. In
recent years, some companies are shedding the boss-worker image by allowing
managers to assume the responsibility of coach. Workers are referred to as
production associates. The coach’s job is to coordinate the work and motivate
employees. The employees, whether they are engineers or production associates,
become part of the team, not just someone who carries out orders. This approach
yields significant rewards for the company and the employee. Company objectives
and tasks are carried out in an efficient manner and the employee, by making a
contribution, feels good about a job well done.
Human
conflict can be minimized but never eliminated. There may be times when
engineering decisions are overruled or employee suggestions not adopted. In
these cases, the findings should be documented for possible review at a later
date, then the engineer or employee can move on to the next assignment. In any
conflict, whether it is between management and employees, between management
and unions, or between employees, good judgement must be used.
Juran and Deming agree that the majority of problems arise from flaws in the system and not because of employee motivation or employee errors. Deming has stated that 80% of problems are management or system related. When the system is the problem, the output will not meet specifications regardless of employee effort. The outcome is substandard products and employee dissatisfaction. The situation is changing as management approaches are changing. In many companies, management and system problems are being addressed and the outcome is very positive. Management is investing in new equipment, advanced employee training and respect for employee judgement. This results in employee satisfaction, high quality products and increased productivity.
In recent years, computers have changed the way people work. The computer has become an indispensable tool. Former mundane tasks are easier to accomplish and in some cases even fun. In addition to increasing productivity at the workplace, computers and the computer industry have made a significant impact in all areas of human activity.
7.0
A BRIEF HISTORY OF QUALITY
1550
BC - Egyptian royal cubit was
standardized. It was about 20.63'' ± .02''.
1654 - Blaise Pascal with Pierre
de Fermat developed the theory of probability. They were prompted by the
inquiries of gamblers seeking inside information to help them win at cards and
dice.
Early 1800's - Concepts of tolerances and
gauging were developed in American armories.
1861-1865, Civil War - Tolerance and gauging
concepts were used to mass produce arms with interchangeability of parts.
After the Civil War - Tolerance and gauging
concepts were used and improved by companies such as Singer and McCormick.
1916 - Ford Motor Company
developed systematic material handling, machine tool design, factory layout and
final inspection. Automobile production went from ten thousand cars in 1909 to
sixty thousand in 1916. The price decreased from $850 to $350 per car.
1917 - The first published use of
the term Control of Quality appeared in Industrial
Management in an article by G. S. Radford.
1922 - G. S. Radford published the
first book on Quality Control: The
Control of Quality of Manufacturing.
1924 - Dr. Walter A. Shewhart of
AT&T developed the concept of control charts. Dr. Shewhart is referred to
as the father of statistical quality control.
1925 - Harold F. Dodge of AT&T
developed sampling concepts and terminology used in acceptance sampling.
1931 - Dr. Walter A. Shewhart
published Economic Control of
Manufactured Product. This was the first in-depth book on statistical
quality control.
1941-1945 - The
1941 - Harold F. Dodge and Harry G. Romig published
a unique book on sampling procedures. Single
and Double Sampling Inspection Tables. These tables were the forerunners of
the military standard sampling tables.
1944 - The Dodge-Romig Sampling Tables were published. OC curves, lot sizes
and sample sizes are given by AOQL. The tables include single and double
sampling plans.
1946 - The ASQC was organized and
George Edwards of AT&T became the first president.
1947 - ASQC created the Shewhart
medal to recognize outstanding contributors to the quality profession.
1950 - Joseph M. Juran and W.
Edwards Deming taught statistical methods and statistical quality control to
the Japanese.
1950 - Military Standard for
Sampling by Attributes was published as Mil-Std
105A.
1951 - Joseph M. Juran published
the first edition of Quality Control
Handbook.
1968 - ASQC administers the first
examination for Certified Quality Engineer. There were 147 successful
candidates.
1970's - The focus was on continuous
improvement and employee involvement.
1980's - The emphasis was on quality
of design and design for manufacturability. Computers were used extensively in
all aspects of quality.
1987 - The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) establishes ISO 9000 Series Quality
System Standards.
1987 - Congress established the
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award to promote quality awareness, to
recognize significant quality achievements of
1988 - The first Baldrige award
winners were announced. They were Globe Metallurgical Inc. (small business),
Motorola Inc. (manufacturing) and Westinghouse Electric Corporation’s
Commercial Nuclear Fuel Division (manufacturing).
1989 - Military Standard for
Sampling by Attributes is reissued as Mil-Std
105E.
1990's - Quality Concepts were extended to service industries. Emphasis is on total quality management (TQM) and customer satisfaction.
1993 - ANSI/ASQC Z1.4 Sampling Tables and Procedures replaced Mil-Std 105E.
1994 - ISO 9000 Standards were
revised (for clarification?). ANSI/ASQC series standards renamed from Q90
series to Q9000 series.
1996 - Eight thousand
1996 - Since the ASQC certification
program began, more than 55,000 people have become certified in one or more of
the certification areas.
1997 - The American Society for
Quality Control (ASQC) officially changed its name to the American Society for
Quality (ASQ).